Wozunzidwa ndi gulu lankhondo? Kodi mungapemphe bwanji chipukuta misozi

Lamulo la mpikisano lilipo kuti litsimikizire kuti msika ndi wolungama komwe mabizinesi amapikisana pamlingo woyenera. Komabe, pamene opikisana nawo agwirizana kuti akhazikitse mitengo, misika yogawana, kapena kutsatsa malonda, amapanga gulu lankhondo—kuphwanya kwakukulu lamulo la mpikisano. Kwa ozunzidwa ndi mapangano osaloledwa awa, zotsatira zake zachuma zitha kukhala zoopsa kwambiri, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti mitengo ikwere komanso phindu litayike. Ngakhale kuti chindapusa cha oyang'anira kuchokera ku mabungwe monga Authority for Consumers and Markets (ACM) kapena European Commission chimalanga ophwanya malamulowo, sichilipira ozunzidwawo.

Bukuli limapereka kusanthula kwa akatswiri njira zoyendetsera milandu ya anthu zomwe zilipo kwa ozunzidwa ndi ma cartel motsatira malamulo aku Dutch ndi ku Europe . Limafufuza njira zamalamulo zoyendetsera milandu ya anthu payekha, njira yovuta yowerengera ndalama zomwe zawonongeka, ndi njira zoyendetsera ntchito—kuphatikizapo zochita zonse—zomwe zimathandiza kukonza bwino. Kaya ndinu loya wamkati kapena katswiri wa zamalamulo, nkhaniyi ikugwira ntchito ngati njira yokwanira yoyendetsera milandu ya ma cartel.

Funso la Zamalamulo

Funso lalikulu la zamalamulo lomwe layankhidwa mu kusanthula uku ndi lakuti: Kodi ozunzidwa ndi kuphwanya malamulo a cartel angapemphe bwanji kuti alandire ndalama kuchokera kwa omwe akuchita nawo ma cartel motsatira malamulo ampikisano aku Dutch ndi Europe omwe alipo pano?

Izi zikuphatikizapo kukhazikitsa udindo, kuwerengera kwa kuvulala, zofunikira pa chifukwa, ndi njira zenizeni zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito pokonza munthu payekha komanso gulu lonse.

Makhalidwe Abwino

Ufulu wolandira chipukuta misozi chifukwa cha kuphwanya malamulo a mpikisano wakhazikitsidwa bwino m'malamulo aku Europe ndi Netherlands.

Bungwe la ku Ulaya

Pa mlingo wa ku Ulaya, Nkhani 101 ya Pangano Lokhudza Kugwira Ntchito kwa European Union (TFEU) imaletsa mapangano onse pakati pa mabungwe omwe amaletsa mpikisano. Khoti Lachilungamo la ku Ulaya (ECJ) lakhala likutsimikiza kwa nthawi yayitali kuti kugwira ntchito kwathunthu kwa Nkhani 101 ya TFEU kumafuna kuti munthu aliyense atha kupempha chindapusa chifukwa cha kutayika komwe kumachitika chifukwa cha mgwirizano kapena khalidwe lomwe lingalepheretse kapena kusokoneza mpikisano (Courage v Crehan, Manfredi).

Ufulu umenewu unagwirizanitsidwanso ndi Directive 2014/104/EU yokhudza milandu yotsutsana ndi kudalirana. Directive cholinga chake ndi kuchotsa zopinga zenizeni pakulipira, ndikukhazikitsa malamulo ofunikira otsimikizira komanso nthawi zochepetsera.

Kukhazikitsa kwa Chidatchi

Ku Netherlands, Article 101 TFEU ipeza kuti dzikolo ndilofanana mu Article 6 ya Mededingswet (Mw) . EU Damages Directive idakhazikitsidwa m'malamulo aku Dutch, kusintha kwambiri Dutch Civil Code (Burgerlijk Wetboek - BW) ndi Code of Civil Procedure (Wetboek van Burgerlijke Rechtsvordering - Rv).

Zofunikira zazikulu zikuphatikiza:

• Nkhani 6:162 BW: Maziko ambiri a mlandu wokhudza zolakwa (onrechtmatige daad). Kuchita nawo gulu lankhondo ndi chinthu chosaloledwa kwa ogula.
• Nkhani 6:193l BW: Amakhazikitsa lingaliro lotsutsika lakuti kuphwanya malamulo a magaleta kumabweretsa mavuto.
• Nkhani 161a Rv: Ikunena kuti chisankho chomaliza cha ACM kapena European Commission chopeza kuti pali kuphwanya malamulo ndi umboni wosatsutsika wa kuphwanya malamulo kumeneko m'milandu ya anthu wamba.

Kuphatikiza apo, Wet Afwikkeling Massaschade in Collectiveeve Actie (WAMCA) , yomwe yaphatikizidwa mu Article 3:305a BW, imapereka njira yolimba yothanirana ndi mavuto onse, kulola mabungwe oyimira kuti apemphe ndalama zothandizira gulu la ozunzidwa, mwina posankha kuchotsedwa.

Kupatulapo ndi Kuganizira Kwapadera

Kuweruza milandu yokhudza ndalama za kampani ya cartel kumasiyana kwambiri ndi milandu yamalonda chifukwa cha kusiyana kwa chidziwitso komanso zovuta zachuma.

Umboni ndi Malingaliro Ovuta

Ngakhale lamulo lalikulu ndilakuti wopemphayo ayenera kutsimikizira kuwonongekako, lingaliro lomwe lili mu Article 6:193l BW limasuntha udindo wokhudza kukhalapo kwa kuwonongekako. Komabe, kuchuluka kwa kuwonongekako kumakhalabe chopinga chovuta cha umboni chomwe nthawi zambiri chimafuna ukatswiri wazachuma.

Kukakamiza Anthu Pagulu ndi Paokha

Pali kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa zochita 'zotsatira', zomwe zimadalira chisankho chophwanya malamulo chomwe bungwe la mpikisano linapanga kale, ndi zochita 'zodziyimira pawokha', pomwe wopemphayo ayenera kutsimikizira khalidwe lotsutsana ndi mpikisano. Mu milandu yotsatira, zotsatira zomangirira za chisankho cha bungweli (Article 161a Rv) zimapangitsa kuti ntchitoyi ikhale yosavuta.

Kusanthula ndi Kugwiritsa Ntchito

Kuti munthu alandire ndalama zomwe wawononga, pamafunika kusanthula mosamala malamulo ndi zachuma.

Gawo 1: Kukhazikitsa kuphwanya malamulo

Potsatira zomwe zachitika , wodandaulayo amadalira Article 161a Rv. Chigamulo cha ACM kapena European Commission chimapereka umboni wotsimikizira kuti wotsutsidwayo adachita zinthu mosaloledwa. Izi zimalola khothi la anthu wamba kuti lipewe gawo la mlandu wokhudza kuphwanya malamulowo ndikuyang'ana nthawi yomweyo pa zomwe zimayambitsa ndi kuwonongeka.

Mu milandu yodziyimira payokha , udindo wopereka umboni uli pa wodandaula kuti awonetse kuti khalidwe la wotsutsidwayo linaphwanya Nkhani 6 Mw kapena Nkhani 101 TFEU. Izi ndi zolemetsa ndipo nthawi zambiri zimafuna kupeza umboni womwe umasungidwa mwachinsinsi ndi otsutsa.

Gawo 2: Kuwonongeka ndi kuchuluka

Kuphwanya malamulo kukatsimikizika, kuchuluka kwa kutayika kwa ndalama kuyenera kuwerengedwa. Nkhani 6:193l BW imaganiza kuti kuvulala, koma kuwerengera 'kuwonjezera'—kusiyana pakati pa mtengo womwe waperekedwa ndi mtengo womwe ukanakhalapo pamsika wopikisana (wotsutsana)—kumafuna kusanthula kwachuma kwapamwamba.

Makhothi nthawi zambiri amadalira umboni wa akatswiri pogwiritsa ntchito njira monga:

• Njira zogwiritsira ntchito poyerekezaKuyerekeza mitengo panthawi yophwanya malamulo ndi mitengo isanayambe kapena itatha (yakanthawi), kapena ndi mitengo yomwe ili pamsika wosiyana (malo).
• Kusanthula kwa Econometric regressionKugwiritsa ntchito zitsanzo za ziwerengero kuti tisiyanitse zotsatira za gulu lankhondo ndi zinthu zina zomwe zimapangitsa kuti mitengo ikwere (monga mitengo ya zinthu zopangira, kukwera kwa mitengo).

Malinga ndi Article 6:97 BW , khoti lili ndi mphamvu zowerengera ndalama zomwe zawonongeka ngati kuwerengera kolondola sikungatheke, kupereka chitetezo kwa opempha omwe deta yawo si yolondola.

Gawo 3: Chifukwa

Wopemphayo ayenera kusonyeza mgwirizano pakati pa kuphwanya malamulo ndi kutayika komwe akuti ndi komwe kwachitika (condicio sine qua non). Mu milandu ya cartel, mayeso a "koma chifukwa cha" amagwiritsidwa ntchito: koma pa cartel, kodi msika ukanakhala wotani? Ngakhale kuti kuganiza kuti pali vuto kumathandiza pano, otsutsa nthawi zambiri amanena kuti zinthu zakunja pamsika, osati cartel, ndizo zomwe zidapangitsa kuti mitengo ikwere.

Gawo 4: Kuteteza ku ngozi

Njira yodzitetezera yodziwika bwino ndi 'kupereka chitetezo'. Otsutsa amanena kuti wopempha (wogula mwachindunji) sanataye chilichonse chifukwa adapereka ndalama zowonjezera kwa makasitomala awo (ogula mwachindunji).

• Malangizo a Nkhani 13 2014/104/EU ndi Nkhani 6:193p BW ikani udindo wopereka umboni kwa wotsutsa kuti awonetse kuti ndalama zowonjezerazo zidaperekedwadi.
• Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, Nkhani 6:193q BW zimathandiza ogula osalunjika mwa kupanga lingaliro lakuti kupha munthu wina kunachitika ngati atagula katundu amene wakhudzidwa ndi kuphwanya lamulo.

Chitetezo ichi chimaletsa kuchulukitsa ndalama kwa wogula mwachindunji mopanda chilungamo koma chimawonjezera mavuto pamilandu pofunafuna kusanthula njira zamitengo za wopemphayo komanso momwe msika umayendera.

Gawo 5: Mbali za ndondomeko

Ofuna kufunsidwa milandu ayenera kusankha pakati pa milandu ya munthu payekha ndi milandu ya anthu onse. Kuyambira pomwe WAMCA idakhazikitsidwa , milandu ya anthu onse yakhala chida champhamvu. Malinga ndi Article 3:305a BW, bungwe loyimira milandu likhoza kupempha chipukuta misozi cha gulu la ozunzidwa. Khothi likhoza kulengeza kuti mgwirizano wa anthu onse uyenera kumangidwa kapena kupereka chigamulo chopereka chipukuta misozi kwa gulu lonse (nthawi zambiri anthu okhala ku Netherlands sakufuna kuchotsedwa).

Ulamuliro ndi gawo lina lofunika kwambiri pa ndondomeko. Malinga ndi lamulo la Brussels I bis Regulation, makhothi aku Dutch nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi ulamuliro ngati m'modzi mwa omwe akuchita nawo ma callel ('wotsutsa wamkulu') ali ku Netherlands, zomwe zimalola kuti ma callel akunja abweretsedwenso ku makhothi aku Dutch.

Gawo 6: Kuulula ndi umboni

Kusagwirizana kwa chidziwitso ndi vuto lalikulu kwa ozunzidwa. Malamulo aku Dutch amapereka njira zothetsera vutoli kudzera mu Article 843a Rv (ufulu wokopera kapena kuyang'ana zikalata). Wopemphayo angapemphe mwayi wopeza umboni winawake womwe uli ndi wotsutsa kapena anthu ena (kuphatikizapo fayilo ya bungwe loona za mpikisano, kupatulapo mawu olekerera pansi pa Article 846 Rv).

Khotilo limayesa zopemphazi potengera kufanana ndi kutsimikizika kwa zomwe zanenedwazo. Kusatsatira malamulo oulula kungayambitse zilango motsatira Article 162 Rv , monga momwe khoti limapangira malingaliro oipa motsutsana ndi munthu wokana.

Zotsutsana ndi Zodzitetezera

Ochita nawo Cartel amagwiritsa ntchito chitetezo champhamvu, kuphatikizapo:

• Palibe Ulalo Woyambitsa: Kukwera kwa mitengo komwe kunabuka chifukwa cha mitengo ya zinthu zopangira kapena zinthu zina zomwe sizinali za mgwirizano.
• KuperekaMonga tafotokozera pamwambapa, ponena kuti wopemphayo adapereka mtengo wake ku unyolo wogulira.
• KupereweraKugwiritsa ntchito lamulo la malire (verjaring). Pansi pa Nkhani 3:310 BW, nthawi zambiri nthawi imeneyi imakhala zaka zisanu kuchokera pamene munthu akudziwa za kuwonongeka kwa zinthu komanso amene ali ndi mlandu, koma izi zimayimitsidwa panthawi yofufuza ya bungwe loona za mpikisano.
• KuthetsaKukangana kwa wodandaulayo kwalephera kuchepetsa kutayika kwawo (monga, mwa kusasintha ogulitsa).

Malamulo Aposachedwa a Mlandu

Malamulo aposachedwa a ku Netherlands asintha momwe malamulowa amagwiritsidwira ntchito. Chigamulo cha TenneT/ABB chatsimikizira kupezeka kwa 'mitengo ya ambulera' (komwe anthu omwe si mamembala a gulu lankhondo amakweza mitengo pansi pa chitetezo cha gulu lankhondo). Milandu ya Trucks Cartel yapanga zigamulo zambiri kwakanthawi zokhudzana ndi kupereka madandaulo ndi lamulo loyenera, zomwe zalimbitsa Netherlands ngati ulamuliro waukulu pa milandu ya gulu lankhondo chifukwa cha njira yake yodalirika yopezera umboni ndi kuulula.

Kutsiliza

Malo azamalamulo a anthu omwe akhudzidwa ndi ma cartel ku Netherlands ndi olimba komanso abwino kwa omwe akuimbidwa mlandu. Kuphatikiza kwa ziganizo zotsimikizira, momwe zigamulo zoyendetsera malamulo zimamangidwira, komanso njira ya WAMCA yothanirana ndi mavuto onse kumapereka njira yolimba yolipirira. Komabe, zovuta zachuma zowerengera kuwonongeka ndi chitetezo chokhwima chomwe chimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi ma cartel zimafuna kukonzekera koyambirira kwa njira ndi upangiri wapadera wazamalamulo ndi zachuma.

magwero

• Lamulo la EU: Article 101 TFEU, Directive 2014/104/EU
• Lamulo la ku Dutch: Nkhani 6 Mw, Nkhani 6:162 BW, Nkhani 6:193l BW, Nkhani 6:193q BW, Nkhani 3:305a BW (WAMCA)
• Lamulo la Ndondomeko: Nkhani 161a Rv, Nkhani 843a Rv, Nkhani 845-847 Rv
• Lamulo la Mlandu: Courage v Crehan (C-453/99), Manfredi (C-295/04), Kone (C-557/12)

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri - Mlingo wa Akatswiri

Mafunso 1: Ndi umboni uti womwe ndi wokhutiritsa kwambiri kusonyeza mgwirizano womwe ulipo pakati pa gulu lankhondo ndi kuwonongeka kwanu pamilandu ya milandu yachiweniweni?

Kukhazikitsa ulalo wa chifukwa ndi njira yomwe pempho la kuwononga ndalama limayendera. Malinga ndi lamulo la ku Dutch, wopemphayo amapindula ndi Article 6:193l BW , yomwe imakhazikitsa lingaliro lotsutsa kuti kuphwanya malamulo a gulu lankhondo kumabweretsa mavuto. Kuphatikiza apo, pazochita zotsatila, Article 161a Rv imapangitsa chisankho cha kuphwanya malamulo cha ACM kapena European Commission kukhala chomangirira, kutsimikizira mosatsutsika kuti kuchitako sikuloledwa.

Komabe, kuti titsimikizire mgwirizano weniweni womwe umayambitsa kutayika kwa wodandaula, 'deta yogulira' ndiyofunika kwambiri. Izi zikuphatikizapo ma invoice, ma order ogulira, ndi mapangano okhudza nthawi yophwanya malamulo. Deta yosaphika iyi ndiyo maziko a malipoti a akatswiri azachuma. Malipotiwa nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito kusanthula kwachuma, monga kusanthula kwa regression, kuti asiyanitse 'cartel effect' ndi zinthu zina zamsika.

Kafukufuku woyerekeza mitengo 'asanayambe ndi pambuyo pake' ndi wokhutiritsa kwambiri, akuwonetsa kusiyana kwa mitengo pakati pa nthawi ya cartel ndi muyezo wa mpikisano. Kuphatikiza apo, Article 847 Rv imalola opempha kuti apemphe mwayi wopeza fayilo ya bungwe la mpikisano kuti apeze umboni, ngakhale kuti mawu olekerera amatetezedwa. Milandu yaposachedwa (onani ECLI:NL:HR:2025:1761) ikugogomezera kuti ngakhale kuti lingalirolo limathandiza, wopempha ayenerabe kupereka deta yokwanira yoyambirira kuti khothi lithe kutumiza nkhaniyi ku njira inayake yowunikira kuwonongeka (schadestaatprocedure).

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri 2: Kodi kuchitapo kanthu mogwirizana ndi WAMCA kungalimbikitse bwanji momwe anthu ozunzidwa ndi anthu ena amachitira zinthu motsutsana ndi omwe akuchita nawo zachinyengo?

Msonkhano wa Wet Afwikkeling Massaschade in Collectiveeve Actie (WAMCA) , womwe unayamba kugwira ntchito kuyambira 2020 ndipo unalembedwa mu Article 3:305a BW , wasintha kwambiri momwe milandu imachitikira. Ubwino wake waukulu uli mu njira ya 'opt-out' ya anthu okhala ku Dutch (Article 1018f Rv). Izi zimangophatikizapo ozunzidwa onse omwe ali mgulu lomwe lafotokozedwalo pokhapokha ngati achoka, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale kusonkhanitsa kwakukulu kwa madandaulo komwe kumawonjezera mphamvu motsutsana ndi otsutsa.

Kwa ozunzidwa paokha, WAMCA imachepetsa ndalama zochulukirapo komanso zoopsa za milandu. M'malo monyamula katundu wokha, ndalama nthawi zambiri zimalipidwa ndi opereka ndalama za milandu omwe amagwirizana ndi bungwe loyimira. Njirayi imagwirizanitsanso zofuna zofanana, zomwe zimathandiza kuti pakhale njira yabwino yothetsera mavuto wamba monga udindo komanso kuwerengera ndalama zambiri zomwe zaperekedwa.

Kuphatikiza apo, chigamulo pa mlandu wa WAMCA—kapena mgwirizano wovomerezeka ndi khoti—chimagwira ntchito pa gulu lonse ( Article 1018d Rv ). Izi zimapangitsa kuti pakhale kutha ndipo zimapewa 'kuduladula' kwa milandu yambiri ya munthu payekha. Ngakhale kuti zofunikira zovomerezeka zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ku bungwe loyimira (lonena za ulamuliro ndi ndalama), likakwaniritsidwa, bungweli limakhala ndi mphamvu zokambirana zomwe wopempha m'modzi samazikwaniritsa kawirikawiri. Malamulo aposachedwa a milandu akutsimikizira kuti makhothi aku Dutch ali okonzeka kugwiritsa ntchito WAMCA kwambiri pamilandu yampikisano, bola ngati zomwe zikunenedwazo zikufanana mokwanira.

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri 3: Kodi ndi chitetezo chotani chomwe anthu omwe ali mgulu la ma cartel anganene pankhani yopereka ndalama zothandizira anthu omwe akhudzidwa ndi ngoziyi, ndipo kodi wopemphayo angayembekezere bwanji izi?

Kudziteteza kwa wopereka mlandu kumadalira pa Nkhani 13 ya Malangizo 2014/104/EU ndipo kumaletsa wopempha kuti alandire ndalama zambiri ngati wasamutsa ndalama zambiri za kampani ya cartel kwa makasitomala ake. Udindo wopereka umboni uli pa wotsutsa kuti awonetse kuti ndalama zambirizo zaperekedwa.

Otsutsa nthawi zambiri amadalira kusanthula zachuma kuti awonetse kuti momwe msika wa wopemphayo ulili umalola kukwera kwa mitengo popanda kutaya kuchuluka. Kuti ayembekezere izi, wopemphayo ayenera kukonzekera njira yodzitetezera. Izi zimaphatikizapo kusonkhanitsa umboni wakuti mikhalidwe yamsika—monga mpikisano waukulu kapena kusinthasintha kwa mtengo—zinaletsa kufalikira kulikonse. Umboni wa mgwirizano wosonyeza mapangano amtengo wokhazikika ndi makasitomala ukhozanso kutsutsa kuthekera kopereka ndalama.

Kuphatikiza apo, opempha ayenera kukhala okonzeka kutsutsa njira zachuma za wotsutsa. Ngati kuwerengera kolondola sikungatheke chifukwa cha zovuta za unyolo wopereka, khothi lili ndi mphamvu zowerengera kuchuluka kwa opereka. Chofunika kwambiri, chitetezo cha opereka chimagwirizana ndi Article 6:100 BW (kuchotsera phindu); wotsutsa kwenikweni akunena kuti 'ubwino' wa mitengo yokwera pansi uyenera kuchotsedwa ku kuwonongeka. Opempha akhoza kutsutsa izi ponena kuti ngakhale mitengo itakwezedwa, adakumana ndi 'volume effect' (kutayika kwa malonda) komwe kumakhala mutu wosiyana wa kuwonongeka.

Mafunso 4: Kodi wogula wosalunjika angapemphe ndalama paokha ngati wogula mwachindunji sapereka chiwongola dzanja chifukwa cha imfa?

Inde, ogula zinthu mosalunjika ali ndi ufulu wodziyimira pawokha wopempha kuti awonongedwe. Iyi ndi mfundo yofunika kwambiri ya Directive 2014/104/EU (Nkhani 12-14) yomwe cholinga chake ndi kuonetsetsa kuti zinthu zonse zikulipidwa. Mu lamulo la ku Netherlands, Article 6:193q BW ikupereka lingaliro loti anthu ogula zinthu mosalunjika azilipiridwa.

Kuti apindule ndi lingaliro ili, wogula wosalunjika ayenera kutsimikizira zinthu zitatu: (a) wotsutsidwayo wachita kuphwanya malamulo; (b) kuphwanya malamulo kunapangitsa kuti wogula mwachindunji alipire ndalama zambiri; ndipo (c) wogula wosalunjika adagula katundu kapena ntchito zomwe zinali chifukwa cha kuphwanya malamulo. Izi zikatsimikizika, khothi likuganiza kuti ndalama zowonjezerazo zidaperekedwa kwa iwo.

Wotsutsidwayo akhoza kukana lingaliro ili, nthawi zambiri posonyeza kuti kutumizidwa kwa katundu kunayima kale mu unyolo wopereka katundu. Chofunika kwambiri, wogula wosalunjika safunika kudikira kuti wogula mwachindunji achitepo kanthu. Kudziyimira pawokha kumeneku kumaletsa 'mpata' pakukakamiza kumene wogula mwachindunji angakane kumanga mlandu wogulitsa wofunikira. Komabe, ogula osalunjika amakumana ndi zovuta zosiyanasiyana zotsimikizira kuti katunduyo ndi wolondola ndikuwerengera gawo lenileni la ndalama zochulukirapo zomwe adalipira.

Mafunso 5: Kodi kusowa kwa deta yokwanira yoyendetsera milandu kuchokera kwa wodandaula kapena wotsutsidwa kumakhudza bwanji kuwunika kwa umboni wokhudza chitetezo choperekedwa?

Malinga ndi Nkhani 150 Rv , udindo wopereka umboni nthawi zambiri umakhala wa munthu amene akufuna kupereka chilango cha mlandu. Pa mlandu woteteza, udindowu uli ndi wotsutsa. Komabe, wopemphayo ali ndi udindo wotsimikizira kutayika kwake ndipo nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi deta yogulitsa yoyenera.

Ngati wodandaula alephera kupereka deta yofunikira yomwe ili mkati mwa gawo lake (monga mitengo yakale yogulitsira), akhoza kuopseza khothi kuti lipange malingaliro oipa. Komabe, makhothi amazindikira kuti nthawi yosungira deta ndi yochepa. Ngati deta ikusowa chifukwa cha chipani (monga chifukwa cha kupita kwa nthawi yoposa zomwe malamulo amaletsa), khothi lingagwiritse ntchito nzeru zake motsatira Article 152 Rv kuti liwunike umboni womwe ulipo momasuka.

Malangizo aposachedwa a Khoti Lalikulu (onani ECLI:NL:PHR:2025:654 ndi ECLI:NL:HR:2025:1328) akusonyeza kuti ngakhale wopempha nthawi zambiri amakhala ndi udindo pa kayendetsedwe kake, 'malo owopsa' sapitirira kwamuyaya. Ngati kuwerengera kolondola sikungatheke chifukwa cha deta yosowa, khoti nthawi zambiri limabwereranso ku mphamvu zake motsatira Article 6:97 BW kuti liyerekeze kuwonongeka kapena kuchuluka kwa kuperekedwa. Komabe, kusowa kwathunthu kwa zikalata ndi wopempha kungakhale koopsa ngati kulepheretsa wotsutsayo kutsimikizira bwino chitetezo chake, zomwe zingayambitse kuchotsedwa kwa gawo limenelo la pempho.

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri 6: Kodi khoti lingapereke zilango zotani ngati chipani chikukana kupereka deta yaulamuliro ngakhale kuti lamulo lowulula laperekedwa?

Kukana kutsatira lamulo la khothi loti liwululidwe (malinga ndi Nkhani 843a Rv kapena Nkhani 22 Rv ) ndi kuphwanya kwakukulu malamulo a kayendetsedwe ka zinthu. Malinga ndi Nkhani 162 Rv , khothi lili ndi mphamvu zambiri zopezera mfundo zomwe likuona kuti ndi zoyenera kuchokera ku kukana koteroko.

Zilango sizimakhazikika koma zimatsogozedwa ndi mfundo ya kufanana poyerekeza ndi kuopsa kwa kukana. Chilango choopsa kwambiri ndichakuti khothi lingavomereze zomwe mdani akunena ngati zoona zenizeni, ndikuchotsa udindo wopereka umboni pa mfundo yeniyeniyo. Zilango zina zomwe zingachitike ndi izi:

• Kukana pempho (ngati wopemphayo akukana) kapena kuvomereza pempho (ngati wotsutsayo akukana).
• Kuchotsa chipani chosagwirizana ndi mgwirizano kuti chisapereke umboni wina pankhaniyi.
• Kupereka chilango nthawi ndi nthawi (dwangsom) kuti akwaniritse zomwe akufuna.

Kusankha kwa khothi kumadalira ngati kukanako kukuchepetsa kayendetsedwe ka chilungamo. M'milandu ya anthu ophwanya malamulo, komwe kulibe kusiyana kwakukulu kwa chidziwitso, makhothi akufunitsitsa kugwiritsa ntchito malingaliro oipa kuti atsimikizire kuti mbali ina singapindule ndi kubisa umboni.

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri 7: Kodi woweruza milandu wakale angasonkhanitse umboni motani pamene mbali zonse ziwiri sizikupereka ulamuliro wokwanira?

Ngakhale kuti njira ya milandu ya ku Dutch ndi yotsutsana—kutanthauza kuti magulu amafotokoza kukula kwa mkanganowo— Article 22 Rv imapatsa khothi mphamvu zogwira ntchito zoyang'anira milandu. Khothi likhoza kulamula magulu kuti apereke zambiri zowonjezera kapena kupereka zikalata zinazake ngati likuona kuti fayiloyo si yokwanira.

Komabe, khothi silingathe kulowa m'malo mwa magulu kuti 'lipeze' mfundo; likuyenera kutsatira Article 149 Rv kuyika chigamulo chake pa mfundo zomwe maguluwa apereka. Ngati magulu onse awiri alephera kupereka deta yokwanira, khothi likukumana ndi vuto. Silingathe kuchita kafukufuku wake kunja kwa milandu (monga kafukufuku wa pa intaneti) popanda kuphwanya mfundo ya audi et alteram partem (kumva mbali zonse ziwiri).

M'malo mwake, khoti nthawi zambiri limathetsa vutoli mwa:

1. Kusankha akatswiri odziyimira pawokha (monga akatswiri azachuma) pansi pa Nkhani 194 Rv kutengera kuwonongeka kutengera deta yochepa yomwe ilipo.
2. Kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zake kuwerengera ndalama zomwe zawonongeka (Nkhani 6:97 BW).

Khoti limagwira ntchito ngati mlonda wa ndondomekoyi, osati wofufuza milandu. Malamulo aposachedwa a milandu akusonyeza kuti makhothi adzagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zimenezi kuti apewe kukanidwa kwa chilungamo, makamaka m'milandu yovuta ya mpikisano komwe umboni 'wangwiro' supezeka kawirikawiri.

Mafunso 8: Kodi woweruza milandu angagwiritse ntchito kusintha udindo wopereka umboni kuti awononge chipani chosagwirizana ndi mgwirizano popanda deta?

Kusintha mwalamulo udindo wopereka umboni ndi njira yapadera. Lamulo lathunthu la Article 150 Rv lingathe kuchotsedwa pokhapokha ngati zofunikira za kulingalira bwino ndi chilungamo zikufunira. Pankhani ya kusowa kwa deta, makhothi amasamala. "Vuto lokha la umboni" silikwanira kusintha udindowo.

Komabe, ngati kusowa kwa umboni kumachitika makamaka chifukwa cha kusaganiza bwino kwa wotsutsa—monga kuwononga umboni mwadala kapena kukana kuulula zikalata—khoti lingasinthe udindowo. Izi zikugwirizana kwambiri ndi zilango zomwe zili mu Article 162 Rv.

M'milandu ya cartel, kusalingana kwa chidziwitso kumatsimikizira kale lingaliro lovomerezeka la kuvulaza (Article 6:193l BW). Kuwonjezera izi mpaka kubweza kwathunthu kwa katundu wokhudzana ndi kuchuluka kwa kuwonongeka kapena chitetezo choperekedwa sikofala. Khothi Lalikulu (onani ECLI:NL:HR:2006:AU4529) limafuna chifukwa chomveka bwino cha kubweza koteroko. Kawirikawiri, khothi limangogwiritsa ntchito muyezo wotsika wa umboni kapena kuganiza zoona motsutsana ndi chipani chosagwirizana popanda kusintha mwalamulo udindo walamulo.

Mafunso 9: Kodi munthu amene akuchita nawo kafukufuku wa ma cartel angagwiritse ntchito bwino mwayi wokana kuulula zambiri za oyang'anira kuti asadzipangire mlandu?

Mfundo ya nemo tenetur (chitetezo ku kudzipha), yochokera ku Nkhani 6 ya ECHR, nthawi zambiri otsutsa amapempha kuti akane zopempha zowulula motsatira Article 843a Rv. Amanena kuti kupereka zikalata kungapangitse kuti alandire chindapusa china cha oyang'anira kapena mlandu waupandu.

Komabe, pankhani ya ndalama zolipirira milandu, chitetezochi sichimapambana kawirikawiri pankhani ya zikalata zomwe zinalipo kale. Khoti Lalikulu (onani ECLI:NL:HR:2025:1519) ndi malamulo a milandu aku Europe amasiyanitsa pakati pa zinthu 'zodalira chifuniro' (monga mawu okakamizidwa) ndi zinthu 'zosadalira chifuniro' (zikalata zomwe zilipo mosasamala kanthu za chifuniro cha wokayikiridwa, monga ma invoice, kayendetsedwe ka ntchito, ndi maimelo amkati).

Zolemba za utsogoleri zili m'gulu lomaliza. Palibe mwayi woletsa kuulula zolemba za bizinesi m'khothi la anthu wamba chifukwa choti zingasonyeze kuti ali ndi mlandu. Ngakhale kuti Nkhani 845 Rv imalola kukana pa "zifukwa zazikulu," kuopa mlandu sikuonedwa ngati chifukwa chachikulu pankhaniyi. Kupatulapo kokhako ndiko kwa mawu olekerera (clementieverklaringen) omwe adalembedwa makamaka kwa akuluakulu ampikisano, omwe amatetezedwa ndi Nkhani 846 Rv kuti asunge magwiridwe antchito a boma.

Mafunso 10: Kodi nthawi yocheperako yofunsira ndalama zowononga ndalama za cartel ndi iti ndipo imayamba liti kugwira ntchito?

Malinga ndi lamulo la ku Dutch ( Nkhani 3:310 BW ), nthawi yochepetsera ndalama zolipirira ndi zaka zisanu. Nthawi imeneyi imayamba kuyambira tsiku lotsatira pamene wovulalayo adziwa zonse ziwiri (1) kuwonongeka ndi (2) kudziwika kwa munthu amene ali ndi mlandu. Iyi ndi mayeso a 'subjective'. Palinso nthawi yochepetsera 'cholinga' ya zaka 20 kuchokera pamene chochitikacho chinayambitsa kuwonongeka ( Nkhani 3:306 BW ).

Chofunika kwambiri kwa ozunzidwa ndi ma cartel, malangizo ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa Dutch kumapereka kuti nthawi yochepetsera milandu iyimitsidwe panthawi yofufuza ndi bungwe loona za mpikisano (ACM kapena EC). Kuyimitsidwa kumeneku kumatha chaka chimodzi chigamulo chophwanya malamulo chitakhala chomaliza. Izi zimatsimikizira kuti ozunzidwawo amatha kudikira zotsatira za anthu asanapereke mlandu wa anthu.

Mwachidule, nthawi yochepetsera nthawi zambiri siiyamba mpaka akuluakulu ampikisano atafalitsa chigamulo chawo, chifukwa nthawi zambiri iyi ndi nthawi yoyamba yomwe wozunzidwayo angadziwe za gulu lankhondo. Komabe, kusokoneza mwachangu (kukonza) kudzera mu kalata yovomerezeka kapena kalata yopempha kuti munthu alowe m'malo mwake ndikofunikira kuti ufulu usungidwe, makamaka pamilandu yodziyimira payokha kapena pamene nthawi yofufuzira ndi yayitali.

Mafunso Ofunsidwa Kawirikawiri 11: Kodi kuwonongeka kumawerengedwa bwanji pamilandu ya kuwonongeka kwa cartel?

Kuwerengera kuwonongeka ndi njira yazachuma, osati yovomerezeka ndi boma. Cholinga chachikulu ndikuyika wozunzidwayo pamalo omwe akanakhalapo akanakhala kuti gulu lankhondo silinalipo (zochitika zotsutsana).

Njira yodziwika kwambiri ndi kuwerengera ndalama zowonjezera: (Mtengo Weniweni – Mtengo Wotsutsana) x Kuchuluka Kogulidwa.
Kuti adziwe mtengo wotsutsana ndi zenizeni, akatswiri amagwiritsa ntchito:

1. Kuyerekeza kwakanthawiKuyang'ana mitengo pamsika womwewo gulu lankhondo lisanakhazikike kapena litagwa.
2. Kuyerekeza kwamaloKuyang'ana mitengo pamsika wofanana, wosakhudzidwa (monga dziko lapafupi).
3. Kusanthula kuponderezedwa: Njira yowerengera yomwe imalamulira zinthu monga kufunikira, mtengo wa zinthu zolowera, ndi kukwera kwa mitengo kuti ipeze zotsatira za mtengo zomwe zachitika chifukwa cha mgwirizano.

Ofuna ngongole angapemphenso phindu lotayika (ngati mitengo yokwera yachepetsa kuchuluka kwa malonda awo) ndi chiwongola dzanja . Gulu lovuta koma lodziwika bwino ndi kuwonongeka kwa ambulera , komwe opikisana nawo omwe si a ma cartel nawonso adakweza mitengo pang'onopang'ono mu gulu la ma cartel. Ngati kuwerengera kolondola kwalephera, khothi limagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zake kuwerengera kuwonongeka ( Nkhani 6:97 BW ), nthawi zambiri limasankha "kuyerekeza koyenera" kutengera zitsanzo za akatswiri zomwe zaperekedwa.

Mafunso 12: Kodi ubwino ndi kuipa kwa kuchitapo kanthu pamodzi poyerekeza ndi kuchitapo kanthu pa munthu payekha ndi kotani?

Kusankha pakati pa gulu (WAMCA) ndi zochita za munthu payekha ndi chisankho chanzeru.

Ntchito Yogwirizana (WAMCA)

• Ubwino: Phindu lalikulu ndi kugwiritsa ntchito bwino ndalama komanso kuchepetsa chiopsezo. Ndalama zolipirira milandu nthawi zambiri zimaphimba ndalama zamilandu. Zimapereka mphamvu zambiri pakukambirana za kuthetsa mavuto chifukwa cha phindu lonse la zomwe zanenedwa. Bungwe loyimira milandu la akatswiri limayang'anira kayendetsedwe ka nkhani yovutayi.
• Zoyipa: Ofunsira payekha ali ndi mphamvu zochepa pa njira zoyendetsera milandu ndi mfundo zothetsera mavuto. Njira ya 'kusankha kuchoka' imatanthauza kuti mukuphatikizidwa pokhapokha mutachitapo kanthu, zomwe zimakukakamizani kuti mupeze zotsatira zomwe zingakhale zochepa kuposa zomwe munthu payekha akufuna. Njirayi ikhoza kukhala yochedwa chifukwa cha kumvetsera milandu yovomerezeka ya bungwe loyimira.

Zochita za Munthu Payekha

• Ubwino: Kulamulira kwathunthu njira, nthawi, ndi mgwirizano. Nkhaniyi imapangidwira makamaka kuwonongeka kwa munthu (monga momwe phindu lake limatayika), zomwe zingayambitse kuchira kwakukulu. Kuthetsa milandu mwachindunji ndi otsutsidwa kumakhala kosavuta popanda kulowererapo kwa khothi.
• Zoyipa: Kukwera mtengo koyambirira komanso zoopsa zowononga ndalama ngati pempholo lalephera. Wopemphayo ndiye yekha amene ali ndi udindo wonse wotsimikizira. Zimafunika nthawi yochulukirapo yoyang'anira mkati.

Kwa ozunzidwa ang'onoang'ono, kuchitapo kanthu pamodzi nthawi zambiri ndiyo njira yokhayo yothandiza. Kwa ozunzidwa akuluakulu m'makampani omwe ali ndi madandaulo akuluakulu, kuchitapo kanthu payekha (kapena pagulu) nthawi zambiri kumabweretsa phindu labwino pa ndalama zomwe zayikidwa.